A Napoleonic uniform told you the man's rank at thirty paces, often faster. Here is how to read it.
Quick answer. Napoleonic rank was shown by epaulettes, lace, hat decoration, sash, sword knot and plume. The French used fringed epaulettes graded by rank (contre epaulette or counter epaulette on one shoulder for junior officers, two full epaulettes for captains and above). The British used an epaulette plus a crown or star system that developed through the war. Both armies distinguished generals and marshals by heavier bullion, white plumes and ornate sword furniture.
Marshal and general officer
A French marshal wore a specific dress uniform: a dark blue coat with heavy gold embroidery at collar, cuffs and lapels, a crimson silk sash across the chest with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and the famous feathered marshal's bicorne. On campaign the marshal often wore a plainer frock coat with marshal's embroidery. British generals wore scarlet with a dark blue facing, oak leaf embroidery on the collar and cuffs, and a cocked hat with ostrich feather plume. Rank above general was so visible on a battlefield that soldiers often recognised their chief at a mile.
Colonel and lieutenant colonel
French colonels wore two heavy gold or silver epaulettes with heavy bullion fringe. British colonels wore two epaulettes with a crown and star on the strap (the system was still developing in 1812, standardised later). A regimental colonel often had a plumed hat with distinctive marks of rank. Field officers in the British army wore crimson silk sashes like other officers but of superior quality.
Captain
French captains wore two full epaulettes without the heavy bullion of a field officer. British captains wore two epaulettes with a crown on the strap. Captains commanded companies (around 100 men) and often served as adjutants or paymasters. In action they led from the front of their company and were killed in enormous numbers: at Waterloo one British captain in every three was a casualty.
Lieutenant and subaltern
A French lieutenant wore a full epaulette on the left shoulder and a counter epaulette (same body, no fringe) on the right. A sub lieutenant (sous lieutenant) wore a counter epaulette on both shoulders. British subalterns (lieutenants and ensigns) wore a single epaulette on the right shoulder for the flank companies, or no epaulette with wings for the regimental grenadier and light companies. The system was more cryptic than the French.
Non commissioned officers
French NCOs wore stripes of coloured braid on the lower sleeve: one stripe for corporal (caporal), two for sergeant, three for sergeant major (adjudant), with specific colours by rank. British NCOs wore chevrons on the right upper sleeve: two for corporal, three for sergeant, four for colour sergeant. The chevron system became the pattern copied worldwide.
Drummer, trumpeter and musician
Musicians were distinguished by reversed colours. A French line regiment musician wore red where the men wore blue, with heavy regimental lace in white or yellow across the chest. The British drummer wore dark blue coats with yellow lace, exactly opposite the scarlet with yellow of the men. Musicians were considered essential and often fell under enemy fire with the colour party. Their dress was deliberately conspicuous to make them findable in action.
Private soldier
The private wore the standard regimental uniform without decoration beyond regimental facings and basic shoulder straps. No epaulettes, no sash, no sword knot, no bullion. His equipment was identical to any other private of the same regiment, which was the point: the private soldier was anonymous and interchangeable, part of the mass that generals moved around on maps.
Common questions
How did French and British rank systems differ?
The French used epaulettes graded by fringe quantity. The British used epaulettes plus a crown and star badge system. The French system was more immediately legible.
What is a counter epaulette?
An epaulette body without the fringe. Worn by French junior officers on the right shoulder alongside a full epaulette on the left.
Why did musicians wear reversed colours?
To make them conspicuous. In action, commanders needed to find the drummer and trumpeter quickly to signal manoeuvres. The reversed colour made them stand out.
What was a Marshal of France?
The highest rank in the French army. Napoleon created 26 marshals during the empire. The marshal's uniform was uniquely rich in gold embroidery and crimson silk.
Did a soldier's rank affect his uniform cost?
Enormously. A private's uniform cost perhaps 20 to 40 francs or shillings. A captain's cost ten times that. A general's cost a hundred times. Marshals' coats could cost thousands.