The naval officer of the 19th century was the figure Winslow Homer painted and Patrick O'Brian wrote about. His dress was carefully coded.
Quick answer. 19th century naval officer uniforms built on the 18th century blue and white theme and added increasing rank distinctions. Royal Navy officers wore dark blue with white facings, cocked bicorne (full dress) or peaked cap (undress), rank shown by cuff lace from 1856 onwards. US Navy officers wore similar in dark blue. French Marine officers wore dark blue with red facings. By 1900 every major navy had settled on a dark blue double breasted frock coat for formal wear and a shorter tunic for everyday service.
Royal Navy officers early 19th century
The Royal Navy officer of 1800 to 1850 wore the dark blue coat with white facings, white waistcoat and breeches, white stockings and buckled shoes, cocked bicorne hat. The pattern evolved through 1812, 1825, 1827, 1830, 1856 and later regulations, but kept the blue and white theme throughout. Rank was shown initially by the quantity of gold lace on collar and cuff, later by shoulder straps and from 1856 by cuff lace rings. The 1856 regulation introduced the modern system of cuff rings that is still used today.
The 1856 cuff lace system
The 1856 Royal Navy regulation introduced the cuff lace rank system still in use. Admiral: four thick stripes with a loop at the top. Vice Admiral: three thick stripes with a loop. Rear Admiral: two thick stripes. Captain: four stripes. Commander: three stripes with a loop. Lieutenant Commander (introduced later): two and a half stripes. Lieutenant: two stripes. Sub Lieutenant: one stripe with a half. The loop at the top of the senior officer's lace is called the executive curl and originated with the executive branch versus the engineering and other branches.
The frock coat and undress
By the mid 19th century naval officers wore a double breasted dark blue frock coat for formal wear and a shorter tunic (reefer jacket) for everyday service. The frock coat had gilt buttons with crown and anchor, cuff rings showing rank, and (from 1856) peaked cap or cocked hat depending on order of dress. The reefer or undress tunic became the ancestor of the modern officer's working uniform. By 1900 the frock coat was reserved for full dress only, with the reefer becoming the standard working garment.
The US Navy
The United States Navy officer uniform evolved along similar lines to the Royal Navy. 1830 pattern: dark blue frock coat with white or buff facings, gold lace on collar and cuff, dark blue trousers. The cuff lace rank system came in 1852, modified later to match the British 1856 pattern. US naval officers wore the cocked bicorne for full dress through the Civil War and sometimes beyond; the peaked cap became standard in the second half of the century. Confederate naval officers during the Civil War wore grey tunics with blue facings and a modified cuff lace rank system.
French and Russian naval officers
French Marine officers wore dark blue coats with red facings, gold lace, cocked bicorne. The French system of rank was by sleeve stripe and shoulder board. Russian naval officers wore similar dark blue with white facings and Russian braid patterns. Both navies retained the frock coat and bicorne for full dress through the century, with the undress reefer gradually becoming the working garment. By 1900 every major navy's officer uniform was recognisably similar, though the national distinctions survived in button pattern, cockade and specific lace.
The transition to the modern uniform
The 19th century naval officer uniform shaped the modern pattern. The dark blue double breasted reefer, the peaked cap with white top for summer, the cuff lace rank, the gilt buttons with crown and anchor: all are direct descendants of the 1856 to 1900 patterns. The modern Royal Navy uniform is remarkably close to that of Admiral Jellicoe at Jutland in 1916, and only slightly different from that of Admiral Beatty's officers at the same battle. The naval officer dress has evolved more slowly than any other military uniform.
Common questions
When was the cuff lace rank system introduced?
In the Royal Navy, 1856. The US Navy introduced it in 1852. Both systems have evolved slightly but remain essentially the same today.
What is a reefer jacket?
The shorter double breasted dark blue tunic worn as naval officer's undress or everyday service dress. Ancestor of the modern reefer coat worn in civilian life.
What is the executive curl?
The loop at the top of the cuff lace on senior Royal Navy officers' uniforms. Originally distinguished the executive branch from other branches.
Did naval officers really wear cocked hats?
Yes, for full dress, through most of the 19th century. The peaked cap replaced it for everyday wear.
Where can I see 19th century naval uniforms?
The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, the US Navy Museum in Washington and the Musee National de la Marine in Paris all have excellent collections.